The Big, Bad Book of Botany Read online

  Nowadays most beer is made from barley, hops, yeast, and water. The discovery of hops and their use as an additive seem to date to the Middle Ages in Germany. Hops not only act as a tremendous preservative, but serve as an important flavor enhancer. The hop plant (Humulus lupulus) also contains chemical sedatives. Hops are in the Cannabaceae family of flowering plants, as is marijuana. The “hop” is actually the female part of the plant’s cone-shaped flowers, though the entire plant is commonly referred to as “hops.” It grows naturally in North America, Europe, and parts of Asia. As a vine, hops use other plants for support, growing around a host to achieve their height and search for sunlight.

  BELLADONNA

  Atropa belladonna

  Deadly with Benefits

  Atropa belladonna is a Eurasian perennial, with reddish bell-shaped flowers that bear glossy black berries. Other names for the plant include belladonna, deadly nightshade, devil’s berries, naughty man’s cherries, death cherries, beautiful death, and devil’s herb. The plant earns its sinister nicknames from the extreme toxicity of its foliage and berries, which contain potent dosages of tropane alkaloids. Its most common name, belladonna, derives from Italian, meaning “beautiful woman.” Historically, women have used the herb’s oil to dilate and enlarge the pupils for seductive effect. Although it’s grouped in the nightshade or Solanaceae family of flowering plants, belladonna has a number of less deadly cousins, including potatoes, tomatoes, eggplant, jimsonweed, tobacco, and chili peppers.

  A native to Europe, North Africa, and western Africa, the herb grows wildly in many parts of the United States, mostly in dumps and quarries, near old ruins, under shade trees, or atop wooded hills. Belladonna is a branching plant that often grows to resemble a shrub of about 4 feet in height within a single growing season. Its leaves are long, extending 7 inches, and its bell-shaped flowers are purple with green tinges, about 1 inch long. The fruit and berries appear green when growing, but as the toxins get stronger in the ripening stage, they turn a shiny black color. Belladonna blooms in midsummer through early fall, and its roots are thick, fleshy, and white, growing to about 6 inches or more in length.

  Nightshade is one of the most toxic plants in the Eastern Hemisphere. While the roots are the most deadly part, the poisonous alkaloids run through the entirety of the plant. Scopolamine and hyoscyamine are among these toxins, both of which cause delirium and hallucinations. Nightshade berries pose the greatest danger to children, since they are attractive and look deceptively sweet. Just two berries can kill a child who eats them, and it only takes ten or twenty to kill an adult. Likewise, even consuming a single leaf can prove fatal to humans. Cattle, horses, rabbits, goats, and sheep can eat nightshade without ill or lethal effects, though many pets are vulnerable. Symptoms of nightshade poisoning present quickly, so if medical aid is far off, drink a large glass of warm vinegar or a mixture of mustard and water, which may dilute and neutralize the plant’s toxicity.

  Though today we understand that the risks involved in using nightshade outweigh any potential benefits, it has a long history of being used in medicine, in cosmetics, and as a weapon. Ancient Romans harnessed the effects of the plant to make poison-tipped arrows guaranteed to kill, and still others found it an effective anesthetic for surgery since numbness and drowsiness are side effects.

  According to the National Cancer Institute in Milan, Italy, nightshade can provide relief from the discomfort, warmth, and swelling associated with radiotherapy used to treat breast cancer. People have used the plant as a pain reliever for centuries, as well as a muscle relaxer and anti-inflammatory, and to treat peptic ulcers, histaminic reactions, and even motion sickness. A sedative effective in stopping bronchial spasms from asthma and whooping cough, colds, and hay fever, belladonna has also found use as a narcotic, diuretic, antispasmodic, and hydriatic. Despite the risk of toxicity, many use it as a recreational drug for the delirium and vivid hallucinations it can cause.

  Belladonna spreads rapidly, and farmers consider it a major pest. Since the berries are sweet, animals and birds eat them, and their droppings provide the plant’s primary mode of seed disbursement. The seeds’ hard coat makes germination a difficult feat, but after they have passed through an animal’s digestive tract the chances of procreation increase. Even under the right conditions, the seeds still take several weeks to germinate.

  If you wish to grow your own crop of the herb, soak the seeds in refrigerated cold water for two weeks, replacing the water daily. Plant the seeds immediately after two weeks. The young seeds will need sufficient moisture if they’re to germinate successfully, so choose a plot outdoors in May, when there is no fear of frost, and after a strong rain, when the soil is fairly moist. Place the seeds 18 inches apart from one another and make sure to keep them free of weeds or other plants. First-year plants should be thinned out to about 2½ to 3 feet to avoid overcrowding in the next year.

  Because it’s so difficult to grow, belladonna rarely appears in gardens. Though it’s cultivated for medicinal purposes in England, France, and North America, the herb has no major value as food. Some home gardeners plant it for its large, colorful display of berries, but remember: this beauty blooms with no printed warning signs, and it’s a risky and deadly choice to grow haphazardly.

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  The Star of Poisons

  Belladonna is rightfully known as the plant most used throughout history for stealthy assassinations. Spies, as well as tasters hired by kings and the wealthy to sample food for poisons, learned that it’s possible to develop a tolerance to belladonna. By exposing themselves to the toxins by taking small sips of a brew made from the plant over time, an assassin could demonstrate a drink was safe to consume, and their mark would swallow the poison willingly. Made from the plant’s berries, such a drink retains a sweet taste and can pass as a fermented beverage. Scotland’s King Duncan I is said to have passed around bottles of the deadly drink in 1030 to an army of Danes, which killed them all without his having to lift a sword. For so-called witches, belladonna is the supposed main ingredient of brews that make broomsticks levitate. And perhaps they do, even if only in their witchy hallucinations.

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  BETEL PALM

  Areca catechu

  A Nut with a Kick

  Betel palm is a tropical tree abundant throughout much of the tropical Pacific as well as in Asia and parts of eastern Africa. The palm has scarlet or orange-colored fruits called betel nuts. Probably originating in either Indonesia or the Philippines, the tree has inspired religious and other symbolism in numerous cultures, and often figures in sacrificial rituals. In India, a bunch of betel leaves given between a couple formed an actual legal “document” signifying they had married.

  The betel is a medium-sized palm tree. It has a long trunk that grows straight up, reaching 40 to 50 feet in height, though it’s also very slender, reaching only 4 to 6 inches in diameter. Its leaves are usually less than an inch in length, and are long and pinnate with numerous leaflets.

  In Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Taiwan, people grow the palm commercially for its seeds, known there as areca nuts. Sold fresh, cured, or dried throughout these countries, the nuts are often chewed, either whole or wrapped in betel leaves (like a quid of chewing tobacco), which gives the nut a fresh, peppery taste. Chewed betel nuts can act as a mild stimulant, inducing a warm, energized sensation. The effect is similar to that of a cup of coffee, though the nuts are decidedly more addictive. In fact, the nuts contain a chemical called arecoline, which, when combined with the leaves and some lime juice, produces a substance similar to cocaine. It acts on the nervous system and causes the release of dopamine. People can easily become addicted to betel quids.

  Nevertheless, the plant is customarily believed to be beneficial, helping to kill bad breath, remove phlegm, and help “expel wind.” It does turn teeth black, however, and grinds them down, and it can stain lips with a reddish dye. It causes the production of large amounts of bright red saliva, so a betel ch
ewer will spit frequently. Ground into a powder, the nut can be ingested as a remedy to treat tapeworms and other intestinal parasites. Despite some health benefits, however, research shows that frequent use is linked to oral cancers and gastrointestinal problems such as stomach cancer and ulcers.

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  Throughout Indonesia, the leaves and nuts of the betel palm represent love and are treated much the way roses are treated in the United States on Valentine’s Day.

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  BIRCH

  Betula pendula

  Making Faces

  Birch is a hardwood tree that bears a close relation to the oak. Silver birch is native to Europe and Asia and is commonly called the Watchful Tree. Its bark has crevices and grooves that look like tiny eyes—the birch held great spiritual importance as a goddess spirit in Celtic cultures, where it was said to keep evil away and bolster courage. For centuries afterward, these cultures constructed baby cradles only from birch wood, believing it a vital protection for infants.

  Capable of growing 40 to 70 feet tall, a birch is usually small or medium-sized in comparison to others in its area. It usually grows in temperate climates and thrives in direct sunlight. The birch tree competes against other, taller trees, since it has adapted to thrive in soils with higher acidity.

  Birches have simple leaves on which veins emanate from a single mid-rib. The leaves often appear in pairs and are about an inch long. The plant has small fruit with seeds that have learned to ride the winds like mini helicopters, similar to those found on maple trees. All birch buds grow early and fully mature by midsummer. The flowers on the tree open up as or just before the leaves emerge. These flowers are unique in that birches are monoecious, meaning they produce both male and female flowers.

  Birch trees are oddly resistant to decay, due mostly to the many natural oils that occur in its wood. These oils give the fine-grained wood a satiny texture, making it ideal for polishing. This, with the ripples that occur naturally within the wood, make it a favorite among furniture makers.

  Lightweight but flexible, birch wood is often used to make skateboards, as well as model airplanes. Birchwood’s versatility makes it a sought-after lumber, often bringing in a higher dollar value per board than many other hardwoods.

  The birch has other uses apart from its lumber. Birch oil extracts are useful in flavoring and in the production of leather oils, soaps, and shampoos. Tar extracted from birch bark is thermoplastic and waterproof, so it was used as a glue to fasten arrowheads to arrow shafts. Native Americans loved birch trees for this reason and because they could use the bark to make lightweight canoes, wigwams, and bowls. Birch leaves are used to make a medicinal tea with supposedly calming and diuretic effects, as well as an extract for dyes. Birch wood is also a favorite firewood because it burns without popping and ignites with the slightest spark. Even the bark burns well, bolstered by its natural oils. Birch sap makes a good sweetener, almost like maple syrup. Some choose to drink it straight, and fermenting it produces birch sap wine. Given all these wonderful characteristics, it’s no wonder the Celts believed birch trees contained the benevolent spirit of a goddess.

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  Reproductive Morphology

  In flowers, the male, pollen-producing part is called the stamen, consisting of what’s known as a filament and an anther. They can take multiple shapes, but are usually more numerous than the pistil—the flower’s female structure. More often than not, a flower will have only one pistil. Pollen is effectively the plant’s sperm, while the pistil acts as an ovary, ultimately producing the plant’s seeds or fruit. In most flowering plants, pollinators such as bees or other insects must transfer the pollen from the anther to the pistil. When a plant is monoecious, pollination can be achieved more easily, even by wind brushing flowers together, making the plant far less dependent on attracting pollinators.

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  Survival Technique

  If you break a leg or a bone in the wilderness, have someone soak some birch bark until moist to make a fairly sturdy temporary cast.

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  BIRD OF PARADISE

  Strelitzia

  Looking like a Bird

  Bird of paradise plants, also known as crane flowers, are a genus of five species of perennials native to southern Africa. The bird of paradise produces unique flowers, some of the most beautiful in the plant kingdom. The name comes from the flower’s resemblance to the crest of a bird’s head. The exotic flower makes this plant a popular ornamental piece. Its scientific name (Strelitzia) was chosen by English naturalist and explorer Sir Joseph Banks, who named it in honor of Queen Charlotte, wife of George III, and who also held the title of Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.

  In Africa, birds of paradise represent joy and paradise itself. In the United States and throughout the world, they symbolize liberty and freedom.

  In addition to their desirable resemblance to birds, Strelitzia often finds its way into exotic floral displays. These flower arrangements are quite valuable, as they last about a week before wilting. Africans, though, are content to admire birds of paradise from afar and will not harvest or touch one in any way, believing it bad luck to disturb such beauty.

  Birds of paradise are quite large as plants go. If grown to maturity, certain species can reach 30 feet tall and 15 feet wide. Their leaves are quite large, too, getting up to 28 inches long and 12 feet wide. They are a fierce competitor for sunlight, and their rapid growth allows them to quickly tower over others.

  The bird of paradise’s uniqueness lies in the shaping of its grayish green leaves, which are elongated and curved on the tips. They look a lot like banana leaves, though the bird of paradise’s leaves often have a longer petiole. The leaves form a fanlike crown of foliage that can stay green all year long, given the right location and climate. The leaves are tough and durable. The flowers are the most stunning part of the plant, and it requires almost no imagination to envision one as a bird in flight. The colors of the flowers vary greatly, including mixtures of blue, orange, white, red, and yellow.

  Even though its natural habitat is Africa, bird of paradise can survive summers in more temperate climates. The plant prefers loose, well-drained soil and needs full shade if it’s to bloom at all (though it will still grow foliage in semi-direct sunlight). Birds of paradise can withstand gentle, salty winds and seem to produce the most spectacular colors when exposed to ocean breezes.

  Grown indoors in a pot, bird of paradise must be transplanted often to avoid becoming rootbound. The plant should get a mixture of loamy potting soil and mulch, allowing it to stay moist but well drained. Even an indoor plant will need to sit outside to soak up some of the summer’s light, though always shaded from full exposure. Sow seeds at least 6 feet apart to allow the plant to flower and bush out properly. Birds of paradise are big plants and must be treated as such; give each ample room to spread “its wings.” Fertilizer, a good idea for these plants, is best applied in spring before new growth starts, as well as once per month during the summer.

  Sunbirds are the plants’ primary pollinators in Africa; when landing on the flower, the weight of the birds spreads the leaves apart and opens the flower top; the pollen sticks to the bird’s feet. The bird is then able to deposit it on the next flower it visits. No one is sure whether the birds are lured by the plant’s very birdlike flowers. Nevertheless, it’s just another of nature’s surprising coincidences that a bird-shaped flower depends chiefly on birds for pollination.

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  Birds of paradise are often planted by people who have close family in the military. In some cultures, a woman’s giving the plant to a man is taken as a symbol of her faithfulness.

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  BLACK-EYED SUSAN

  Rudbeckia hirta

  Strength in Numbers

  The black-eyed Susan is native to the eastern and central United States. Other common names for the plant include brown-eyed Susan, brown Betty, poorland daisy, yellow daisy, and gloriosa daisy. />
  Black-eyed Susan is a medium-sized plant, growing 12 to 29 inches tall and spreading out to more than 15 inches wide. Its oval leaves are 10 to 18 inches long and are covered with coarse hair. It boasts one noticeably large flower about 4 inches in diameter. These flowers, very rich and bright in color, have a “black eye,” comprising two hundred to three hundred smaller brown pistil florets, or clusters of flowers, each one producing a seed. Ten to fourteen yellow florets surround the center. Since it looks very similar (though smaller) to the sunflower, it’s unsurprising the black-eyed Susan is in the same family.

  People have bred and domesticated this plant for centuries, and so the flowers now come in an extensive range of colors, including orange, red, and brown. These varied hybrids appear widely in parks and gardens and often feature on summer bedding schemes, in wildflower gardens, as cut flowers, and on borders and in containers.

  Black-eyed Susan can grow in sand, loam, or clay, and in all types of soil in full sun. It is very competitive and will push other plants out of the way in order to support its own growth. Likewise, the plant can tolerate a lot of water, as its root system has evolved to maximize absorption. After the roots take in the water, it’s drawn up to the main part of the plant, where the hairy leaves and stems help to keep it inside and prevent loss of moisture.

  Black-eyed Susan has a short life, only two years. In its second year, the plant produces flower stalks, which bloom from May to October, depending on the variety. Butterflies, bees, and flies drink the nectar of this plant, thus pollinating it and creating seeds.